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The annual financial statements are prepared on the historical cost basis, except for certain financial instruments, which are measured at fair value. Details of the accounting policies used in the preparation of the annual financial statements are set out below and are consistent with those applied in the previous year, except as stated under the heading "Changes in accounting policies".

The annual financial statements of the group have been prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and interpretations of those standards, as adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), the South African Companies Act, No 71 of 2008, as amended, the Financial Pronouncements as issued by the Financial Reporting Standards Council, the JSE Listings Requirements and the SAICA Financial Reporting Guides as issued by the Accounting Practices Committee.

The group has not applied the following new IFRS and IFRIC revised and amended standards and interpretations, which have been issued, as they are not yet effective:

The group adopted IFRS 9: Financial Instruments and IFRS 15: Revenue from Contracts with Customers on 1 July 2018, and will adopt IFRS 16: Leases during its financial year commencing 1 July 2019.

IFRS 9 has replaced IAS 39: Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement and applies to the classification and measurement of financial assets and financial liabilities, their impairment and hedge accounting. The group adopted the new standard on 1 July 2018 which is the group's effective date of adoption and no comparative information was restated. The classification and measurement of financial assets and liabilities adopted by the group will remain mostly unchanged, except for available-for-sale investments, which will be classified as financial assets measured at fair value through other comprehensive income which cannot be reclassified into the income statement dependent on the outcome of a future event. The impact of this is that fair value gains and losses will not be recognised in the income statement but will remain in other comprehensive income (FVOCI). This represents a change from the previous treatment of gains and losses recorded on remeasurement of these investments, which required impairment losses as well as gains and losses on disposal to be recognised in the income statement.

Financial assets measured at fair value through profit and loss, previously disclosed as available-for-sale unlisted investments, relates to investments in unit trusts, on which dividends and interest is earned and recorded in the income statement. Funds Invested with these unit trusts are in turn reinvested in local and global assets, e.g. bonds and cash equities. These instruments can be requested to be withdrawn for a cash consideration of the number of units elected for withdrawal. These investments are regarded as being puttable instruments in debt securities of the financial institutions these assets are held with.

Classification and measurement of financial assets and financial liabilities

Under IFRS 9, financial assets are either classified as amortised cost, FVOCI or fair value through profit or loss (FVTPL). The classification of financial assets under IFRS 9 is generally based on the business model in which the financial asset is managed and its contractual cash flow characteristics.

The following tables indicates the original measurement categories under IAS 39 and the new measurement categories under IFRS 9 for each class of the group's financial assets and financial liabilities as at 1 July 2018.

Group accounts impact

Company accounts impact

IFRS 9 largely retains the existing requirements in IAS 39 for the classification and measurement of financial liabilities. The adoption of IFRS 9 has not had a significant effect on the group's accounting policies related to financial liabilities.

Impairment of financial assets

The impairment requirements are based on an expected credit loss (ECL) model that replaces the IAS 39 incurred loss model. IFRS 9 requires the group to recognise an allowance for ECLs for all debt instruments not held at fair value through profit or loss and contract assets in the scope of IFRS 15. The group applies the simplified approach to trade receivable balances and the general approach to all other financial assets. Refer item: 10.5 Impairment of financial assets below.

The impact of the expected credit losses on financial assets classified at amortised cost in the group was determined as being negligible.

IFRS 15 was issued in May 2014, and amended in April 2016, and will supersede all current revenue recognition requirements under IFRS. IFRS 15 establishes a five-step model to account for revenue arising from contracts with customers. The core principle of IFRS 15 is that an entity shall recognise revenue at an amount that reflects the consideration to which an entity expects to be entitled in exchange for transferring goods or services to a customer.

The group's revenue is primarily derived from the sale of commodity products. The timing of the revenue recognition is dependent on the sales contract terms as documented in the International Commercial terms (Incoterms). In terms of IFRS 15, there was no change in the revenue recognised for free on board (FOB) shipments. The shipping service for all export sales shipped using the cost, insurance and freight (CIF) and cost and freight (CFR) Incoterms, represents a separate performance obligation, i.e. the sale and shipment of goods represent two performance obligations. The primary performance obligation is the supply of the commodity, in which instance the revenue will be recognised once the buyer takes control of the goods. This will not result in a change in revenue recognition from IAS 18: Revenue to IFRS 15. The other performance obligation is the delivery of the shipping service where the revenue earned will be recognised over the period that the service is rendered.

Some of the group's sales transactions contain provisional pricing features which are considered fair value adjustments in terms of IFRS 9. IFRS 15 states that if a contract is partially within the scope of this standard and partially in the scope of another standard (IFRS 9), an entity will first apply the separation and measurement requirements of the other standard(s). Consequently, to the extent that provisional pricing features are considered to be in the scope of another standard, they will be outside the scope of IFRS 15 and the group will be required to account for these adjustments in accordance with IFRS 9 as price adjustments considered fair value adjustments and will be disclosed separately in the revenue note.

In the comparative period, majority of sales were FOB and therefore the deferral of revenue component was negligible. The application of IFRS 15 did not result in changes to the revenue recognised arising from commission income.

The group has elected to adopt a full retrospective approach to the adoption of the standard. The impact on the reported gross profit for the period is negligible and did not require adjustment.

IFRS 16 was issued in January 2016 and it replaces IAS 17: Leases, and its related interpretation, and sets out the principles for the recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of leases and requires lessees to account for all leases under a single on-balance sheet model similar to the accounting for finance leases under IAS 17.

The group intends to adopt IFRS 16 using the modified retrospective approach, with its application becoming effective from 1 July 2019, with the cumulative impact of its adoption to 30 June 2019 being recognised as at 1 July 2019, without restatement of comparative results.

Accounting policy effective as of 1 July 2019

Leases, in terms of IFRS 16, apply to the recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of leases. Certain leases are exempt from the standard, including leases to explore for or use minerals, oil, natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources. IFRS 16 results in the recognition of right-of-use assets and a related lease liability, which was not previously recognised in the statement of financial position.

IFRS 16 includes two recognition exemptions for lessees:

1. The short-term lease exemption — leases with a duration of less than a year may be expensed in the income statement on a straight-line basis.
2. The low value lease exemption — for example personal computers, etc.

The group assesses whether a contract is or contains a lease, at inception of a contract. The group recognised all lease liabilities and corresponding right-of-use assets on the statement of financial position.

Lease liabilities are initially measured at the present value of the lease payments that are not paid at the commencement date, discounted by using the rate implicit in the lease. The group uses its incremental borrowing rate if this rate cannot be readily determined. Where a lease contains an extension option which the group can exercise without negotiation, lease payments for the extension period are included in the lease liability if the group is reasonably certain that it will exercise the option. Any variable lease payments not dependent on an index or rate are excluded from the calculation of lease liabilities. As such, contracts with variable payments are not included in lease liabilities nor is a right-of-use asset recognised. Lease liabilities are presented separately in the statement of financial position, allocated to non-current and current liabilities respectively. Lease liabilities are subsequently measured by increasing the carrying amount to reflect interest on the lease liability (using the effective interest method) and by reducing the carrying amount to reflect the lease payments made.

Lease payments include the fixed lease payment less any lease incentives, variable lease payments that are dependent on an index or rate, the residual value guaranteed by the lessee (i.e. payable by the lessee), and any penalties for terminating the lease (where applicable).

A lease liability will be remeasured and adjusted when:

• There is a change in the lease term or the conditions to exercise a purchase option has changed, in which case the lease liability is remeasured by discounting the revised lease payments using the revised discount rate;
• Lease payments change due to a change in an index or rate or a change in expected payment under a guaranteed residual value, in which case the lease liability will be remeasured by discounting the revised lease payments using the initial discount rate (unless the change in lease payments is due to a change in an interest rate, in which case a revised discount rate is used);
• There is a modification to a lease contract and the modification is not accounted for as a separate lease. The lease liability will be remeasured by discounting the revised lease payments using a revised discount rate.

The right-of-use assets comprise the initial measurement of the corresponding lease liability, lease payments made at or before the commencement day, any initial direct costs and restoration costs as applicable. All right-of-use assets are subsequently measured at cost less accumulated depreciation and any impairment losses.

Depreciation of right-of-use assets and interest on lease liabilities are recognised in the statement of financial performance over the lease term. All lease payments are split between capital and interest. The capital repayment portion will be presented within the cash flow statement as part of cash flow from financing activities, whereas the interest portion will be presented as cash flow from operating activities. Any payments made before the commencement date of the lease is included in cash flow from financing activities.

In applying the group's accounting policies, management has made the following judgements, including those involving estimations, which could have a significant effect on the amounts recognised in the financial statements:

Consolidation of special-purpose vehicles

The Boleng Trust and Fricker Road Trust (the trusts) are broad-based community trusts which are for the benefit of historically disadvantaged South Africans (HDSAs) as contemplated in the Mining Charter. The trusts are invested in special-purpose vehicles (SPVs), namely Main Street 350 Proprietary Limited (RF), Main Street 460 Proprietary Limited (RF) and Main Street 904 Proprietary Limited (RF). The group has considered the requirements of IFRS 10: Consolidated Financial Statements in assessing whether it controls the trusts and the SPVs, both of which are structured entities (SEs) as defined in IFRS 12: Disclosure of Interests in Other Entities. Based on the contractual terms (namely those contained in the relationship agreements which govern the operation of SEs) the voting rights in the SEs are not considered to be the dominant factor in determining control. Factors such as design and purpose of the SEs, the fact that the SEs are indebted to the group, together with the restrictions placed on the Assore shares held by the SEs (either directly or indirectly) have resulted in the group's management concluding that the SEs (the trusts and the SPVs) are controlled by the group and have therefore been consolidated in the group financial statements in order to comply with the requirements of IFRS 10. Similarly, since the Assore Employee Trust (also an SE), which is operated by the group and the SPV in which the trust is invested, is indebted to the group, it has been consolidated in the group financial statements in accordance with IFRS 10. Accordingly, the Assore shares controlled by these SEs are accounted for as treasury shares (refer item 14).

Consolidation of foreign subsidiary

Minerais U.S. LLC (Minerais U.S.) is an international marketing and distributorship concern which imports metallic ores, ferroalloys and metals used in the steel, foundry and die casting industries. The group, through wholly owned subsidiary Ore & Metal Company Limited (Ore & Metal) indirectly owns 51% of Minerais U.S. in the form of 510 Class A membership units, which it acquired on 21 October 1999. The group considered the requirements of IFRS 10: Consolidated Financial Statements in respect of this investment, and concluded that it controls Minerais U.S. as it has power over it (by virtue of contractual agreement with minority shareholders), has exposure to variable returns from its involvement with Minerais U.S., from the rights attached to the majority of membership units held, and lastly has the ability to use its power over Minerais to affect the amount of returns from this investment. The group, through Ore & Metal, can use its power of Minerais in operational matters, to the likes of funding requirements in the form of the Assore guarantee to Minerais, that can impact profitability from this foreign operation, impacting the group's returns on this investment. As the group controls this business, the results of Minerais U.S. are accordingly consolidated as part of group results.

The key assumptions concerning the future and other key sources of estimation uncertainty at the statement of financial position date that have a significant risk of causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities within the next financial year are listed below.

Project risk and exploration expenditure

In evaluating whether expenditures meet the criteria to be capitalised, the group utilises several different sources of information, including:

• the degree of certainty over the mineralisation of the orebody;
• commercial risks including, but not limited to, country risks; and
• prior exploration knowledge available about the target orebody, which reduces the level of risk associated with the capitalisation of this expenditure to an acceptable level.

Production stripping costs

The group incurs waste removal costs (stripping costs) during the development and production phases of its surface mining operations. Furthermore, during the production phase, stripping costs are incurred in the production of inventory as well as in the creation of future benefits by improving access and mining flexibility in respect of the orebodies to be mined, the latter being referred to as a stripping activity asset. Judgement is required to distinguish between the development and production activities at the surface mining operations.

The group is required to identify the separately identifiable components of the orebodies for each of its surface mining operations. Judgement is required to identify and define these components, and to determine the expected volumes (tonnes) of waste to be stripped and ore to be mined in each of these components. These assessments may vary between mines because the assessments are undertaken for each individual mine and are based on a combination of information available in the mine plans, specific characteristics of the orebody, the milestones relating to major capital investment decisions and the type and grade of minerals being mined.

Judgement is also required to identify a suitable production measure that can be applied in the calculation and allocation of production stripping costs between inventory and the stripping activity asset. The group considers the ratio of expected volume of waste to be stripped for an expected volume of ore to be mined for a specific component of the orebody, compared to the current period ratio of actual volume of waste to the volume of ore to be the most suitable measure of production.

These judgements and estimates are used to calculate and allocate the production stripping costs to inventory and/or the stripping activity asset(s). Furthermore, judgements and estimates are also used to apply the units of production method in determining the depreciable lives of the stripping activity asset(s). Refer note 2 to the consolidated financial statements.

Provisions for environmental rehabilitation

The group provides for the estimated costs of rehabilitation which include both restoration and decommissioning of associated assets. An environmental liability assessment is conducted by an independent adviser on an annual basis to assess the adequacy of the environmental rehabilitation provisions. A risk of material adjustment exists due to the inherent uncertainty surrounding the future life of the mines, the forward-looking nature of the provisions and the uncertainty regarding the underlying assumptions. Refer note 16 to the consolidated financial statements.

Ore reserve and resource estimates

Ore reserves are estimates of the amount of ore that can be economically and legally extracted from the group's mines, based on proven and probable ore reserves. The group estimates its ore reserves and mineral resources based on information compiled by appropriately qualified persons, relating to the geological data on the size, depth and shape of the orebody, and require complex geological judgements to interpret the data. Changes in the reserve or resource estimates may impact the carrying value of exploration and mining assets in terms of depreciation charged and possible impairment. Refer note 2 to the consolidated financial statements.

Depreciation based on units of production

Costs related to the development and infrastructure of the mine to the stage when economically accessible reserves are to be extracted, are depreciated over the entire proven and probable reserves for the relevant mineral resource. Subsequent development and infrastructure costs incurred in accessing mineral resources are depreciated over the expected proven and probable reserves expected to be extracted for each phase of the planned mining activity, considering reasonably certain plans for ongoing economically feasible mining activity. Refer note 2 to the consolidated financial statements.

Impairment of non-financial assets

The group assesses each cash-generating unit annually to determine whether any indicators of impairment exist. Where an indicator of impairment exists, a formal estimate of the recoverable amount is made, which is considered the higher of the fair value less cost to sell and value-in-use. These assessments require the use of estimates and assumptions such as commodity prices, discount rates, future capital requirements, exploration potential and operating performance. Fair value is determined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. Fair value for mineral assets is generally determined as the present value of estimated future cash flows arising from the continued use of the asset, which includes estimates such as the cost of future expansion plans and eventual disposal, using assumptions that an independent market participant may consider. Cash flows are discounted at an appropriate discount rate to determine the net present value. For the purpose of calculating the impairment of any asset, management regards an individual mine or works site as a cash-generating unit. Refer note 2 to the consolidated financial statements.

Provision for expected credit losses (ECLs) of trade receivables

The trade and other receivables in the group are non-interest-bearing and the terms range between 30 and 90 days. The group does not have a history of credit losses. The group has a very stringent credit policy and outstanding debtors are monitored on a weekly basis in order to ensure that payment terms are being met. Refer item: 10.5 Impairment of financial assets.

Investments in subsidiary companies are accounted for at cost less impairments in the separate company financial statements, and with subsidiary companies being consolidated as part of group financial statements. Consolidation of a subsidiary begins when the group obtains control over the subsidiary and ceases when the group loses control of the subsidiary. Assets, liabilities, income and expenses of a subsidiary acquired or disposed of during the year are included in the consolidated financial statements from the date that the group gains control until the date that the group ceases to control the subsidiary. All intra-group assets and liabilities, equity, income and expenses and cash flows relating to these transactions between members of the group are eliminated in full on consolidation.

Non-controlling interests (NCI) represent the portion of profit or loss and equity not held by the group which are presented separately in the consolidated income statement and statement of comprehensive income and within equity in the consolidated statement of financial position. The NCI is allocated its share of the total comprehensive income/(losses) for the period, even if that results in a deficit balance.

Investments in joint ventures are accounted for in the company at cost less impairments. Investments in joint ventures are accounted for using the equity method. Carrying amounts of the investment are adjusted to recognise changes in the group's share of net assets of the joint venture since the acquisition date. Goodwill relating to joint ventures are included in the carrying amount of the investment and are not amortised nor individually tested for impairment.

The consolidated income statement and statement of comprehensive income reflect the group's share of the results of operations of joint ventures. Where changes have been recognised directly in the equity of the joint venture, the group recognises its share of any changes, when applicable, in its statement of changes in equity. Unrealised gains and losses resulting from transactions between the group and the joint venture are eliminated to the extent of the interest in the joint ventures.

At each reporting date, the group determines whether there is objective evidence that the investment in the joint venture is impaired. If there is such evidence, the group calculates the amount of impairment as the difference between the recoverable amount of the joint venture and its carrying value, then recognises the loss in the "Share of profit from joint-venture entity, after taxation" in the consolidated income statement.

On loss of joint control over a joint venture, the group measures and recognises any retained investment at its fair value. Any difference between the carrying amount of the joint venture upon loss of joint control and fair value of the retained investment and proceeds from disposal is recognised in profit or loss.

The group's investment in its associate is accounted for using the equity method. The group's share of its profit or loss is based on the associate's most recent audited financial statements or unaudited interim statements drawn up to the date of the group's statement of financial position. Investments in associates are accounted for in the company at cost less impairments. The carrying value of the investment in associate is adjusted to recognise the group's share of the net assets, including the carrying value of goodwill.

The carrying value of the associate is reviewed on a regular basis and if there is objective evidence that an impairment in this amount has occurred because of one or more events during the year, the investment is impaired. If there is such evidence, the group calculates the amount of impairment as the difference between the recoverable amount of the associates and its carrying value, then recognises the loss in the "Share of profit of an associate" in the income statement.

The income statement and statement of other comprehensive income (OCI) reflect the group's share of the results of operations of associates. Any change in OCI of that investee is presented as part of the group's OCI. In addition, where changes have been recognised directly in the equity of the associates, the group recognises its share of any changes, when applicable, in its statement of changes in equity.

The aggregate of the group's share of profit or loss of associates are separately shown in the income statement and represents the profit or loss after tax of the associates.

The group's share of losses in associates that exceed its interest are not recognised unless the group has an obligation to fund such losses.

On loss of significant influence over an associate, the group measures and recognises any retained investment at its fair value. Any difference between the carrying amount of the associate upon loss of significant influence and fair value of the retained investment and proceeds from disposal is recognised in the income statement.

Property, plant and equipment is stated at cost, excluding the costs of day-to-day servicing, less accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses. Such cost includes the cost of replacing part of such plant and equipment when that cost is incurred if the recognition criteria are met. The carrying amounts of plant and equipment are reviewed for impairment when events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable.

An item of property, plant and equipment is derecognised upon disposal or when future economic benefits are no longer expected from its use or disposal. Any gain or loss arising on derecognition of the asset (calculated as the difference between the net disposal proceeds and the carrying amount of the asset) is included in the income statement in the year the asset is derecognised.

The assets' residual values, useful lives and depreciation methods are reviewed, and adjusted if appropriate, at each financial year-end. When an item of plant and equipment comprises several significant components each with different useful lives, these components are recorded and depreciated separately. Expenditure incurred to replace or modify a significant component of plant is capitalised and the remaining book value of the original component is derecognised in the income statement.

The costs of adding to, replacing part of, or servicing an item, following a major inspection, are recognised in the carrying amount of the plant and equipment as a replacement if the recognition criteria are satisfied.

The capitalisation of pre-production stripping costs as part of mine development and decommissioning assets, as incurred by the group's joint-venture entity, whose results are equity-accounted for, ceases when the mine is commissioned and ready for production.

Where the benefits of production stripping costs are realised in the form of inventory produced in the period, the production stripping costs are accounted for as part of the cost of producing those inventories. Where production stripping costs are incurred, resulting in the creation of mining flexibility and improved access to orebodies to be mined in the future, the costs are recognised as a non-current asset. These are referred to as stripping activity assets, if:

• future economic benefits (being improved access to the orebody concerned) are probable;
• the component of the orebody for which access will be improved can be accurately identified; and
• the costs associated with the improved access can be reliably measured.

If these criteria are not met, the production stripping costs are charged to the income statement as operating costs.

The stripping activity asset is initially measured at cost, which consists of the accumulation of costs directly incurred to perform the stripping activity that improves access to the identified component of the orebody and an allocation of directly attributable overhead costs. If incidental operations are occurring at the same time as the production stripping activity but are not necessary for the production stripping activity to continue as planned, these costs are not included in the cost of the stripping activity asset. If the costs of the stripping activity asset and the inventory produced are not separately identifiable, a relevant production measure is used to allocate the production stripping costs between the inventory produced and the stripping activity asset.

The stripping activity asset is subsequently depreciated over the life of the identified component of the orebody that became more accessible because of the stripping activity. Based on proven and probable Reserves, the units-of-production method is used to determine the expected useful life of the identified component of the orebody that became more accessible.

Costs related to property acquisitions and mineral and surface rights related to exploration are capitalised and depreciated over a maximum period of 25 years. All exploration expenditures are expensed until they result in projects that are evaluated as being technically and commercially feasible and from which a future economic benefit stream is highly probable.

Although not currently incurred by the group, exploration expenditure incurred on greenfield sites where the company does not have any mineral deposits which are already being mined or developed, is expensed as incurred until a bankable feasibility study has been completed after which the expenditure is capitalised.

Exploration expenditure incurred on brownfield sites, adjacent to any mineral deposits which are already being mined or developed, is expensed as incurred until the company has obtained enough information from all available sources to ameliorate the identified project risk areas and which indicates by means of a prefeasibility study that the future economic benefits are highly probable.

Exploration expenditure relating to extensions of mineral deposits which are already being mined or developed, including expenditure on the definition of mineralisation of such mineral deposits, is capitalised and depreciated on a straight-line basis over a maximum period of 25 years.

Engineering and technical activities in relation to evaluating the technical feasibility and commercial viability of mineral resources are treated as forming part of exploration expenditures.

Underground mine development includes all directly attributable development costs, to the likes of drilling and blasting, ventilation installation, loading and hauling and other support structure costs, including those incurred prior to the commencement of stoping, are capitalised when incurred.

Depreciation of the various types of assets is determined on the following bases:

Mineral and prospecting rights

Mineral Reserves, which are being depleted, are amortised over their estimated useful lives using the units-of-production method based on proven and probable ore reserves. The maximum rate of depletion of any mineral right is 25 years. Mineral rights which are not being depleted are not amortised.

Land and buildings

Land is not depreciated. Owner-occupied properties, which are designed for a specific use, are only depreciated if carrying value exceeds estimated residual value, in which case they are depreciated to estimated residual value on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives. Depending on the group operations, buildings are depreciated over a minimum of 15 years, but no longer than a period of 25 years.

Mine and industrial properties are depreciated to estimated residual values at the lesser of life-of-mine and expected useful life of the asset on the straight-line basis.

Plant, machinery and equipment

Mining plant, machinery and equipment is depreciated over the lesser of its estimated useful life, estimated at between five and 25 years (being the remaining life of the mine), and the units-of-production method based on estimated proven and probable ore reserves. Where ore reserves are not determinable, due to their scattered nature, the straight-line method of depreciation is applied.

Industrial plant, machinery and equipment is depreciated on the straight-line basis, over its useful life, up to a maximum of 25 years.

Vehicles

Vehicles are depreciated on the straight-line basis. The annual depreciation rates used vary between five and nine years.

Furniture and fittings

Furniture and fittings are depreciated on the straight-line basis. The annual depreciation rates used vary between three and 10 years.

Office equipment

Office equipment is depreciated on the straight-line basis. The annual depreciation rates used vary between two and 11 years.

Computer hardware

Computer hardware is depreciated on the straight-line basis. The annual depreciation rates used vary between two and 11 years.

Computer software

Computer software is depreciated on the straight-line basis. The annual depreciation rate used vary between three and five years.

Capital work-in-progress

Capital work-in-progress is not depreciated and is transferred to the category to which it pertains when the asset is available for use as intended.

Mining development assets

Mining development assets are depreciated using the units-of-production method based on proven and probable ore reserves. The tons used to determine depreciation include all the proven and probable ore reserves that management expects to access within the respective phase. The proven and probable ore reserves of other phases are adjusted to include those reserves that management determines will be extracted from these areas that are to be developed (refer item 3.2 Depreciation based on units of production) once it has been determined that these other phases of mining will be undertaken.

Intangible assets other than goodwill

Intangible assets represent proprietary technical information. Intangible assets acquired separately are measured at cost on initial recognition. The cost of intangible assets acquired in a business combination is fair valued as at the date of acquisition. Following initial recognition, intangible assets are carried at cost less any accumulated amortisation and any accumulated impairment losses. Intangible assets with indefinite useful lives are not amortised.

The useful lives of intangible assets are assessed to be either finite or indefinite. Intangible assets with finite lives are amortised over their useful life on a straight-line basis and assessed for impairment whenever there is an indication that the intangible asset may be impaired. The amortisation period varies between three and five years. The amortisation expense on intangible assets with finite lives is recognised in the income statement in the expense category consistent with the function of the intangible asset. Intangible assets with indefinite useful lives are not amortised and are subjected to annual impairment reviews.

Gains or losses arising from derecognition of an intangible asset are measured as the difference between the net disposal proceeds and the carrying amount of the asset and are recognised in the income statement when the asset is derecognised.

Internally generated intangible assets are not capitalised, and expenditure is reflected in the income statement in the year in which the expenditure is incurred.

Business combinations are accounted for using the acquisition method. The cost of the acquisition is measured as the aggregate of the consideration transferred, measured at acquisition date fair value and the amount of any non-controlling interest in the acquiree. For each business combination, the group elects whether it measures the non-controlling interest in the acquiree at either fair value or at the proportionate share of the acquiree’s identifiable net assets. Acquisition-related costs incurred are expensed and included in administrative expenses.

When the group acquires a business, it assesses the assets acquired and liabilities assumed for appropriate classification and designation in accordance with the contractual terms, economic circumstances and pertinent conditions as at the acquisition date.

Any contingent consideration to be transferred by the acquirer will be recognised at fair value at the acquisition date. Subsequent changes to the fair value of the contingent consideration that is deemed to be an asset or liability will be recognised in accordance with IFRS 9 as a change to profit and loss. If the consideration is classified as equity, it will not be remeasured. Subsequent settlement is accounted for within equity. In instances where the contingent consideration does not fall within the scope of IFRS 9, it is measured at fair value at each reporting date with changes in fair value recognised in profit or loss.

In addition, the group elects the accounting policy to record business combination transactions involving entities under common control at the carrying value thereof, and accordingly no goodwill or bargain purchase gain will result from these transactions.

The group assesses at each reporting date whether there is an indication that the carrying value of an asset or a CGU may be impaired. If any such indication exists, or when annual impairment testing for an asset is required, the group makes an estimate of the asset’s recoverable amount. Where the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount, the asset/CGU is considered impaired and is written down to its recoverable amount. In assessing value-in-use, the estimated future cash flows are discounted to their present value using a pre-tax discount rate that reflects current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the asset. Impairment losses of continuing operations are recognised in the income statement in those expense categories consistent with the function of the impaired asset/CGU.

An assessment is made at each reporting date as to whether there is any indication that previously recognised impairment losses may no longer exist or may have decreased. If such indication exists, the recoverable amount is re-estimated. A previously recognised impairment loss is reversed only if there has been a change in the assumptions used to determine the assets/CGUs recoverable amount since the last impairment loss was recognised, in which case the carrying amount of the asset/CGU is increased to its recoverable amount. That increased amount cannot exceed the carrying amount that would have been determined, net of depreciation, had no impairment loss been recognised for the asset/CGU in prior years. Such reversal is recognised in profit or loss, and the depreciation charge is adjusted in future periods to allocate the asset’s revised carrying amount, less any residual value, on a systematic basis over its remaining useful life.

Non-current assets and disposal groups (the assets) are classified as held for sale if the carrying amount of these assets will be recovered principally through a sale transaction rather than through continued use.

This condition will only be regarded as met if, amongst others, the assets are available-for-sale in their present condition and the sale transaction is highly probable.

For a sale transaction to be highly probable, management must be committed to a plan to sell the assets, an active programme to locate a buyer to complete the plan must have been initiated, and the transaction should be expected to qualify for recognition as a complete sale within 12 months of the date of classification as held-for-sale.

Non-current assets and disposal groups held for sale are measured at the lower of their previous carrying amounts and the fair values less costs to sell and is ceased to be depreciated from the date of classification as held-for-sale.

None of the group’s non-current assets or disposal groups held for sale in management’s view met the definition of discontinued operations at the reporting period, as the assets:

• did not represent either a separate major line of business or a geographical area of operations, or
• were part of a single coordinated plan to dispose of a separate major line of business or geographical area of operations, or
• were a subsidiary acquired exclusively with a view to resale and the disposal involves loss of control.

Financial assets — policy applicable after 1 July 2018

The recognition and measurement of financial instruments depend on their classification as described below. Financial assets are either classified as amortised cost, fair value through profit or loss or fair value through other comprehensive income. The classification depends on the business model for managing the financial assets and whether the instrument’s contractual cash flows represent "solely payments of principal and interest" (SPPI) on the principal amount outstanding. A financial asset can only be measured at amortised cost if both of the following criteria are satisfied:

• Business model: the objective of the business model is to hold the financial asset for the collection of the contractual cash flows
• Contractual cash flows: the contractual cash flows under the instrument relate solely to payments of principal and interest.

Financial assets held at fair value through other comprehensive income

The equity investments are classified as financial assets measured at fair value through other comprehensive income. All investments are initially and subsequently recognised at fair value.

Gains or losses on subsequent measurement are recognised in other comprehensive income.

The fair value of equity investments that are actively traded in organised financial markets is determined by reference to quoted market bid prices at the close of business on the statement of financial position date. For investments where there is no active market, fair value is determined using valuation techniques such as discounted cash flow analysis.

Loans (interest and non-interest-bearing)

The business model for these loans is to collect contractual cash flows from the financial assets and the cash flows are solely payments of interest and principal amounts on specific dates, therefore these loans are classified as financial assets at amortised cost. The loans are initially measured at fair value and subsequently at amortised cost.

The loans and preference shares to the special-purpose vehicles are classified as fair value through profit or loss as they are interest-free with no fixed terms of repayment. These receivables are in substance non-recourse loans, as repayment of these loans are linked to the underlying shares in the special purpose vehicle, and therefore do not meet the SPPI criteria and as a result must be held at fair value through profit or loss. They are measured at fair value initially as well as subsequently. All transaction costs are expensed. Under IAS 39 these financial assets were subsequently measured at amortised cost.

Trade and other receivables

Trade receivables are initially recognised at fair value and subsequently at amortised cost and are classified as financial assets at amortised cost.

Cash and cash equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents comprise cash at banks and on hand and short-term deposits with an original maturity of three months or less but exclude any restricted cash that is not available for use by the group and therefore is not considered highly liquid.

Cash and cash equivalents are initially recognised at fair value and subsequently stated at amortised cost and satisfy the criteria to be classified as financial assets at amortised cost.

Borrowings (interest and non-interest-bearing)

The recognition and measurement of interest and non-interest-bearing borrowings fall within the definition of financial liabilities at amortised cost. The borrowings are initially measured at fair value and subsequently at amortised cost.

Trade and other payables

Trade and other payables are initially recognised at fair value, including any transaction costs directly associated with the payable, and subsequently measured at amortised cost.

Financial assets — policy applicable before 1 July 2018 

Available-for-sale investments

All investments are initially recognised at fair value, including acquisition charges associated with the investment. After initial recognition, available-for-sale investments are subsequently measured at fair value, which equates to market value.

Gains or losses on subsequent measurement of available-for-sale investments are recognised in other comprehensive income until the investment is disposed of, or its original cost is considered to be impaired, at which time the cumulative gain previously reported in other comprehensive income and the impairment below the cost, where considered significant or prolonged, is reclassified to the income statement.

The fair value of available-for-sale investments that are actively traded in organised financial markets is determined by reference to quoted market bid prices at the close of business on the statement of financial position date. For investments where there is no active market, fair value is determined using valuation techniques such as discounted cash flow analysis.

Trade and other receivables

Trade receivables are initially recognised at fair value and subsequently at amortised cost and are classified as loans and receivables. An impairment charge is recognised when there is evidence that an entity will not be able to collect all amounts due in accordance with the original terms of the receivables. The impairment charge is the difference between the asset’s carrying amount and the present value of estimated future cash flows, discounted at the original effective interest rates. The impairment amount is charged to the income statement when it arises.

Cash and cash equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents comprise cash at banks and on hand and short-term deposits with an original maturity of three months or less but exclude any restricted cash that is not available for use by the group and therefore is not considered highly liquid.

Cash and cash equivalents are initially recognised at fair value and subsequently stated at amortised cost.

Preference shares, trade and other payables

Preference shares, trade and other payables are initially recognised at fair value, including any transaction costs directly associated with the borrowing, and subsequently stated at amortised cost, being the initial recognised obligation less any repayments made and any other adjustments plus interest accrued.

Interest and non-interest-bearing loans and borrowings

All loans and borrowings are initially recognised at their fair value, being the consideration received, net of issue costs associated with the borrowing. After initial recognition, interest and non-interest-bearing loans and borrowings are subsequently measured at amortised cost using the effective interest rate method. Amortised cost is calculated by considering any issue costs, and any discount or premium on settlement.

Gains or losses are recognised in profit or loss when the liabilities are derecognised, as well as through the amortisation process.

If the group uses derivative financial instruments, such as forward currency contracts, to hedge its risks associated with foreign currency fluctuations, such derivative financial instruments are initially recognised at fair value on the date on which a derivative contract is entered into and are subsequently remeasured at fair value. Derivative financial instruments are carried as assets when the fair value is positive and as liabilities when the fair value is negative.

The group does not apply hedge accounting and any gains or losses arising from changes in fair value on derivatives are recognised directly in the income statement.

The fair value of forward currency contracts is calculated by reference to current forward exchange rates for contracts with similar maturity profiles.

Financial assets

A financial asset is derecognised when the right to receive cash flows from the asset has expired or the group has transferred its rights to receive cash and either has transferred substantially all the risks and rewards of the asset or has neither transferred nor retained substantially all the risks and rewards of the asset, but has transferred control of the asset. On derecognition of a financial asset, the difference between the proceeds received or receivable and the carrying amount of the asset is included in the income statement.

Financial liabilities

A financial liability is derecognised when the obligation under the liability is discharged or cancelled or expired. On derecognition of a financial liability, the difference between the carrying amount of the liability extinguished or transferred to another party and the amount paid is included in the income statement. When an existing financial liability is replaced by another from the same lender on substantially different terms, or the terms of an existing liability are substantially modified, such an exchange or modification is treated as a derecognition of the original liability and the recognition of a new liability, with any resulting differences being recognised in profit or loss.

Policy applicable after 1 July 2018

The group recognises an allowance for ECLs for all debt instruments not held at fair value through profit or loss. ECLs are based on the difference between the contractual cash flows due in accordance with the contract and all the cash flows that the group expects to receive, discounted at an approximation of the original effective interest rate (EIR). The expected cash flows will include cash flows from the sale of collateral held or other credit enhancements that are integral to the contractual terms.

ECLs are recognised in two stages. For credit exposures for which there has not been a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, ECLs are provided for credit losses that result from default events that are possible within the next 12 months (a 12-month ECL). For those credit exposures for which there has been a significant increase in credit risk since initial recognition, a loss allowance is required for credit losses expected over the remaining life of the exposure, irrespective of the timing of the default (a lifetime ECL).

For trade receivables (not subject to provisional pricing) and other receivables due in less than 12 months, the group applies the simplified approach in calculating ECLs. Therefore, the group recognises a loss allowance based on the financial asset’s lifetime ECL at each reporting date, adjusted for forward-looking factors specific to the debtors and the economic environment.

For any other financial assets carried at amortised cost (i.e. long-term loan balances which are due in more than 12 months), the ECL is based on the 12-month ECL. However, when there has been a significant increase in credit risk since origination, the allowance will be based on the lifetime ECL. When determining whether the credit risk of a financial asset has increased significantly since initial recognition and when estimating ECLs, the group considers reasonable and supportable information that is relevant and available without undue cost or effort. For trade receivables, this includes both quantitative and qualitative information and analysis, based on the group’s historical experience and informed credit assessment including forward-looking information. The group assumes that the credit risk on a financial asset has increased significantly if it is more than 30 days past due. The group considers a financial asset in default when:

• contractual payments are 90 days past due; or
• internal or external information indicates that the group is unlikely to receive the outstanding contractual amounts in full, without recourse by the group.

Related-party transactions

An assessment of the expected credit losses relating to related-party receivables is undertaken upon initial recognition and each financial year by examining the financial position of the related party and the market in which the related party operates applying the general approach of the ECL impairment model of IFRS 9.

Policy applicable before 1 July 2018

The group assesses at each statement of financial position date whether a financial asset or group of financial assets is impaired, which is determined on the following bases:

Assets carried at amortised cost

If there is objective evidence that an impairment loss has been incurred in respect of a financial asset, the amount of the loss is measured as the difference between the asset’s carrying amount and the present value of estimated future cash flows (i.e. excluding future credit losses that have not been incurred) discounted at the financial asset’s original effective interest rate (the effective interest rate computed at initial recognition). The carrying amount of the asset is reduced and the amount of the loss is recognised in the income statement.

The group first assesses whether objective evidence of impairment exists individually for financial assets that are individually significant, and individually or collectively for financial assets that are not individually significant. If it is determined that no objective evidence of impairment exists for an individually assessed financial asset, whether significant or not, the asset is included in a group of financial assets with similar credit risk characteristics and that group of financial assets is collectively assessed for impairment. Assets that are individually assessed for impairment and for which an impairment loss is, or continues to be, recognised, are not included in a collective assessment of impairment.

If, in a subsequent period, the amount of the impairment loss decreases, and the decrease can be related objectively to an event occurring after the impairment was recognised, the previously recognised impairment loss is reversed. Any subsequent reversal of an impairment loss is recognised in the income statement, to the extent that the carrying value of the asset does not exceed what the amortised cost would have been had the impairment not been recognised at the reversal date.

Available-for-sale investments

Decreases, which in the opinion of management are significant and prolonged, in the fair value of available-for-sale investment, which are below their original cost are recorded in the income statement. Management’s opinion of decreases that are significant and prolonged is dependent on the relative materiality of these fluctuations in relation to the market values of these investments. Impairments recorded against available-for-sale equity instruments in the income statement are not reversed, but rather subsequent increases in fair value are recorded in other comprehensive income.

Inventories are valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value with due allowance being made for obsolescence and slow-moving items. The cost of inventories, which is determined on a weighted average cost basis, comprises all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.

Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business, less estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.

The consolidated financial statements are presented in South African currency (rand), which is the group’s functional and presentation currency. Transactions in other currencies are dealt with as follows:

Transactions in foreign currencies are converted to South African currency at the spot rate at the date the transactions first qualify for recognition. Monetary assets and liabilities denominated in a foreign currency at the end of the financial year are translated to South African currency at the functional currency spot rates of exchange at the reporting date. Non-monetary items carried at fair value that are denominated in foreign currencies are translated using functional currency spot rates on the date when the fair value was determined.

Foreign exchange gains or losses arising from foreign exchange transactions, whether realised or unrealised, are included in the determination of profit or loss. Exchange differences arising on the translation of non-monetary items carried at fair value are included in the income statement for the year. However, where fair value adjustments of non-monetary items are recognised in other comprehensive income, exchange differences arising on the translation of these non-monetary items are also recognised in other comprehensive income.

The assets and liabilities of subsidiaries with a different functional currency are translated at the rate of exchange ruling at the statement of financial position date. The income statements of these subsidiaries are translated at weighted average exchange rates for the year. The exchange differences arising on the retranslation are recognised in other comprehensive income. On disposal of a foreign entity, accumulated exchange differences are reclassified in the income statement as a component of the gain or loss on disposal.

The estimated cost of final rehabilitation, comprising the liability for decommissioning of assets and restoration, is based on current legal requirements and existing technology and is reassessed annually and disclosed as follows:

The present value of estimated future decommissioning obligations at the end of the operating life of a mine is included in long-term provisions. The related decommissioning asset is recognised in property, plant and equipment when the decommissioning provision gives access to future economic benefits. The unwinding of the obligation is included in the income statement as finance costs.

The estimated cost of decommissioning obligations is reviewed annually and adjusted for legal, technological and environmental circumstances that affect the present value of the obligation for decommissioning. The related decommissioning asset is amortised using the lesser of the related asset’s estimated useful life or units-of-production method based on estimated proven and probable ore reserves.

The estimated cost of restoration at the end of the operating life of a mine is included in long-term provisions and is charged to the income statement based on the units of production mined during the current year, as a proportion of the estimated total units which will be produced over the life of the mine. Cost estimates are not reduced by the potential proceeds from the sale of assets.

Expenditure on ongoing rehabilitation is charged to the income statement as incurred.

Any subsequent changes to assumptions in estimating an obligation are added or deducted from the decommissioning asset to which it relates. Reductions over and above the remaining carrying value of the asset are recognised in the income statement

Own equity instruments acquired are regarded as treasury shares and are accounted for as a reduction in equity. No gain or loss is recognised in profit or loss on the purchase, sale, issue or cancellation of treasury shares, as these transactions are recognised directly in equity.

Tax assets and liabilities for the current and prior periods are measured at the amount expected to be recovered from or paid to the taxation authorities. The tax rates and tax laws used to compute the amount are those that are enacted or substantively enacted at the statement of financial position date. Income tax relating to items recognised directly in other comprehensive income or equity is recognised in the statement of other comprehensive income or equity and not in profit or loss.

Deferred tax is provided, using the balance sheet method on temporary differences at the date of the statement of financial position, between the tax bases of assets and liabilities and their carrying amounts for financial reporting purposes.

Deferred tax liabilities are recognised for all taxable temporary differences except:

• where the deferred tax liability arises from the initial recognition of goodwill or an asset or liability in a transaction that is not a business combination and, at the time of the transaction, affects neither the accounting profit nor taxable profit or loss; and
• in respect of taxable temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, associates and interests in joint ventures, where the timing of the reversal of the temporary differences can be controlled by the parent, investor or venturer and it is probable that the temporary differences will not reverse in the foreseeable future.

Deferred tax assets are recognised for all deductible temporary differences, and unused tax credits and unused tax losses carried forward to the extent that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary differences and the unused tax credits and unused tax losses carried forward can be utilised except:

• where the deferred tax asset relating to the deductible temporary difference arises from the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction that is not a business combination and, at the time of the transaction, affects neither the accounting profit nor taxable profit or loss; and
• in respect of deductible temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, associates and interests in joint ventures, deferred tax assets are only recognised to the extent that it is probable that the temporary differences will reverse in the foreseeable future and taxable profit will be available against which the temporary differences can be utilised.

The carrying amount of deferred tax assets is reviewed at each reporting date and reduced to the extent that it is no longer probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to allow all or part of the deferred tax asset to be utilised.

Deferred tax relating to items recognised directly in other comprehensive income or equity is recognised in the statement of other comprehensive income or equity and not in profit or loss.

Deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities are offset if a legally enforceable right exists to set off current tax assets against current tax liabilities and the deferred taxes relate to the same taxable entity and the same taxation authority.

Revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities are recognised net of the amount of VAT except:

• where the VAT incurred on a purchase of goods and services is not recoverable from the taxation authority, in which case the VAT is recognised as part of the cost of acquisition of the asset or as part of the expense item as applicable; and
• where receivables and payables are stated with the amount of VAT included.

The net amount of VAT recoverable from, or payable to, the taxation authority is included as part of receivables or payables in the statement of financial position.

Provision for mining royalties is made with reference to the condition specified as contained in the Mining and Petroleum Resources Royalty Act, for the transfer of refined and unrefined mined resources, upon the date such transfer is affected. These costs are included in other expenses.

Dividend withholding tax is payable at a rate of 20% on dividends distributed to shareholders. Dividends paid to companies, certain other institutions and certain individuals are not subject to this withholding tax. This tax is not attributable to the company paying the dividend but is collected by the company and paid to the tax authorities on behalf of the shareholder.

On receipt of a dividend, the company includes the dividend withholding tax on this dividend in its computation of the income tax expense in the receipt period.

Provisions are recognised when:

• a present legal or constructive obligation exists as a result of past events where it is probable that a transfer of economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation; and
• a reasonable estimate of the amount of the obligation can be made.

A present obligation is considered to exist when it is probable that an outflow of economic benefits will occur. The amount recognised as a provision is the best estimate at the reporting date of the expenditure required to settle the obligation. Only expenditure related to the purpose for which the provision was raised is charged to the provision. If the effect of the time value of money is material, provisions are determined by discounting the expected future cash flows at a pre-tax rate that reflects current market assessments of the time value of money and, where appropriate, the risks specific to the liability. Where discounting is used, the increase in the provision due to the passage of time is recognised as finance costs.

Sale of mining and beneficiated products

The group’s revenue is primarily derived from the sale of commodity products. The timing of revenue recognition is dependent on the sales contract terms as documented in the International Commercial terms (Incoterms).

Revenue is recognised for free on board (FOB) and deliver at place (DAP) shipments once the commodity products are loaded onto the vessel. The shipping service for all export sales shipped using the cost, insurance and freight (CIF) and cost and freight (CFR) Incoterms, represents a separate performance obligation, i.e. the sale and shipment of goods represent two performance obligations. The primary performance obligation is the supply of the commodity products, in which instance the revenue will be recognised once the buyer takes control of the goods. The other performance obligation is the delivery of the shipping service where the revenue earned will be recognised over the period that the service is rendered.

Any subsequent changes because of differences between the initial specifications of the material sold and the agreed concluding condition of the material finally invoiced (commonly referred to as the "outturn results") will be subject to the constraint on estimates of variable consideration. Any subsequent changes that result in differences between initial to final outturn results will be recognised as an adjustment to revenue.

Revenue in terms of contracts with customers will be recognised when control passes to the customer and will be measured at the amount the entity expects to be entitled to, being the estimate of the price expected to be received at the end of the quotational period (QP), i.e. using the most recent estimate of the metal content of the commodity product (based on the initial outturn results) and the estimated forward price. However, there may be a material change in the commodity price from the date control passes to the customer compared to the date of the final invoice.

This movement from provisional to final price is linked to the movement in either quoted indices or what is agreed to as current pricing in the market at the time the final price is confirmed. The price adjustments are considered fair value adjustments and will be disclosed separately in the revenue note.

Technical fees and commissions on sales

Revenue from technical fees and commissions on sales are recognised as the services are rendered which is on the date the control of goods passes in the underlying transaction.

Interest received

Interest received is recognised using the effective interest rate method, i.e. the rate that exactly discounts estimated future cash receipts through the expected life of the financial instrument to the gross carrying amount of the financial asset.

Dividends received

Dividends received are recognised when the shareholders’ right to receive the payment is established.

Certain employees of the group are granted share appreciation rights, which are settled in cash (cash-settled transactions).

The cost of cash-settled transactions is measured initially at fair value at the grant date using the Monte Carlo valuation technique. The fair value is expensed over the period until the vesting date with the recognition of a corresponding liability. The liability is remeasured to fair value at each reporting date up to and including the settlement date, with changes in fair value recognised in employee benefits expense.

Retirement benefit plans operated by the group are of both the defined benefit and defined contribution types. The cost of providing benefits under defined benefit plans is determined using the projected unit credit actuarial valuation method. Actuarial gains and losses are recognised through other comprehensive income in the period in which they occur. Remeasurements are not reclassified to profit or loss in subsequent periods.

Past-service costs are recognised in profit or loss on the earlier of:

• the date of the plan amendment or curtailment; or
• the date that the group recognises restructuring-related costs.

The net interest cost is calculated by applying the discount rate to the net defined benefit liability or asset. The group recognises the following changes in the net defined benefit obligation in profit or loss:

• Service costs comprising current service costs, past-service costs, gains and losses on curtailments and non-routine settlements.
• Net interest cost.

The defined benefit asset or liability comprises the present value of the defined benefit obligation less the fair value of plan assets out of which the obligations are to be settled. The value of any defined benefit asset recognised is limited to the present value of any economic benefits available in the form of refunds from the plan or reductions in the future contributions to the plan.

The rate at which contributions are made to defined contribution funds is fixed and is recognised as an expense when employees have rendered services in exchange for those contributions. No liabilities are raised in respect of the defined contribution fund, as there is no legal or constructive obligation to pay further contributions should the fund not hold sufficient assets to pay all employee benefits relating to employee service in the current and prior periods.

Contributions to all defined contribution funds are expensed in profit and loss when incurred.

A contingent liability is a possible obligation that arises from past events, the existence of which will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the group, or a present obligation that arises from past events but is not recognised because it is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, or the amount of the obligation cannot be measured with sufficient reliability. Contingent liabilities are not recognised as liabilities in the statement of financial position but disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.

Earnings and headline earnings per share

The calculation of earnings per share is based on net income after taxation and after adjusting for non-controlling interests divided by the weighted number of shares outstanding during the period.

Headline earnings comprise earnings for the year, adjusted for profits or losses on items of a capital nature. Headline earnings have been calculated in accordance with Circular 4/2018 issued by the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants. Adjustments against earnings are made after considering attributable taxation and non-controlling interests. The adjusted earnings figure is divided by the weighted average number of shares in issue to arrive at headline earnings per share.

Cash resources

The cash resources disclosed in the cash flow statement comprise cash on hand, deposits held on call with banks and highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amounts of cash and are subject to insignificant changes in value. Bank overdrafts have been separately disclosed in the statement of financial position.

Cost of sales

All costs directly related to the production of products are included in cost of sales. Costs that cannot be directly linked are included separately or under other operating expenses. When inventories are sold, the carrying amount is recognised in cost of sales.

Dividends per share

Dividends declared during the year divided by the weighted number of ordinary shares in issue.

Incoterms

Incoterms (international commercial terms) is a set of standardised export pricing terms developed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and which is endorsed by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).